1)
Glycyrrhiza:
Synonyms:
Mulethi,
Radix glycyrrhizae, Licorice, Jethi Madh, Yashtimadhu
Botanical source:
It
consists of subterranean peeled and unpeeled stolons, roots, and subterranean
stems of Glycyrrhiza globra Linn.
Family:
Leguminosae
Geographical source:
It is
produced in a number of countries like Iran, Russia, Spain, Greece, U.S.S.R.,
and India.
Cultivation:
It is
cultivated by planting rhizomes or stolons cutting in deep, rich, loamy,
fertile soil in rows about 4 feet apart in March, addition of farmyard manure
has favourable effect on the growth of the plant. Collection of the drug is
carried out in autumn in the third or fourth year, by which time extensive
development of subterranean part has taken place.
Rhizomes
stolons and roots are dug out, buds and rootlets removed, washed, cut into
pieces of usually 20 cm length and dried in sun in some cases drug is peeled
before drying. Peeled drug is used for direct administration but in preparing
for direct administration but in preparing tincture or liquid extracts unpeeled
drug is used.
Macroscopical characters:
(i) Condition:
Dry,
occurs in the peeled or unpeeled form.
(ii) Shape:
Cylindrical.
(iii) Surface (Outer):
Yellowish brown with longitudinal wrinkles (unpeeled); peeled
ones are yellow coloured with fine longitudinal ridges. In case of stolons,
scars of the buds can be seen.
(iv) Fracture:
Coarsely fibrous in the bark region and splintery in the
wood; fractured surface shows long fibres
projecting outwards.
(v) Odour:
Characteristics.
(vi) Taste:
Sweet
Microscopical characters:
1. Periderm: Phellem (cork):
Several layers with tabular cells, outer layers are filled
with reddish brown contents and inner few are colourless.
Phellogen: Indistinct Phelloderm: 3-5 layered, immediately
below cork, parenchymatous cells whose corners thickened with cellulose
(collenchymatous); some cells contain prism of calcium oxalate and minute
starch grain.
2. Secondary phloem:
Wide zone with numerous concentrically arranged bundles of
phloem fibres each bundle is surrounded by a parenchymatous sheath whose cells
contain prisms of calcium oxalate. Radially the fibre bundles alternated with
soft phloem elements and tangentially with medullary rays.
3. Medullary rays:
Distinct, bi-to multiseriate, parenchymatous, in continuation
with those of xylem however, the rays are narrower in the xylem region and
become wider in the phloem region.
4. Secondary xylem:
Well represented, divided (like phloem) by large medullary
rays at regular interval. Xylem consists of vessel, fibres and lignified wood
parenchyma.
The vessels, fibres and lignified wood parenchyma the
vessels, fibres and lignified wood parenchyma the vessels which are relatively
wide show scalariform and bordered pitted thickenings.
Wood fibres are also unsheathed by a layer of parenchyma
containing crystals. Starch is present in the wood parenchyma.
5. Pith:
Consist of large parenchyma with intercellular spaces and
contain few starch grains. Pith absent in root.
Chemical constituents:
1. Saponin
glycosides: Glycyrrhizin and glycyrrhetic acid.
2.
Flavonoids: Liquiritin, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritin and isoliquiritigenin.
3.
Coumarin derivatives: Herniarin, umbelliferone.
4. Bitter
principle: glyceramarin.
5.
Asparase, β-sitosterol, starch, resin and malic acid
Uses:
1.
Demulcent and expectorant.
2. Tonic.
3.
Laxative.
4.
Diuretic and emollient property.
5.
Anti-inflammatory agent.
6.
Spasmolytic agent.
7. Cough
and peptic ulcer.
8. Chewing
gums, chocolate candy, cigarette and chewing tobacco.
Substitutes and Adulterants:
Manchurian
Licorice is obtained from Glycyrrhiza uralensis. Colour is chocolate brown and
cork exfoliating. Anatomically also it shows peculiarities based on which one
can distinguish.
The
medullary rays are curved and presence of lacunae can be seen in wood. Being a
substitute it does contain glycyrrhizin the active principle but very little of
free sugars.
The common
adulterant is wild licorice also called Indian licorice, derived from the root
of Abrus precatorius (Leguminosae). The root is very toxic due to an alkaloid
abrine and therefore should not be used in place of licorice.
The root
possesses a peculiar disagreeable Odour and bitter acrid flavour leaving
faintly sweet after taste. Microscopically the adulterants are characterized by
stone cells.
Powder analysis of liquorices:
1. Organoleptic characters:
(i)
Colour: Pale, yellowish- brown.
(ii)
Odour: Faint, characteristic.
(iii)
Taste: Sweet.
(iv)
Odour: Faint, characteristic.
(v) Taste:
Sweet.
2. Fibres:
They are
yellow coloured fibres in bundles of about 10- 15; the tips of the bundles
appear fringed like that of an electric cable.
3. Calcium oxalate:
Parenchymatous
sheath of small parenchymatous cell (crystal sheath), each containing a single
prism of calcium oxalate, encircle the above fibres; scattered prism are also
seen (mostly twin prisms).
4. Wood elements:
vessels
large, with numerous bordered pits.
5. Starch granules:
Both simple
(oval to elongated) and compound (not many), minute.
Synonyms:
Radix
Ginseng, Shin-seng, Panax root, Ginseng root, Korean ginseng, Chinese
ginseng and true ginseng.
Description.
Ginseng is the dried root of Panax
ginseng (P. schinseng) (Araliaceae) Collected from 5-6 years old plants, in autumn,
carefully cleaned and dried.
Other varieties of ginseng include Panax quinquefolius (Panax quinquefolium, American Ginseng) and P. pseudoginseng (P. notoginseng, Himalayan ginseng). The root commonly known as Siberian
or Russian ginsengbelongs to the same family, Araliaceae, but
is an entirely different plant, Eleutherococcus senticosus (Acanthopanax senticosus).Brazilian ginseng is
reported to be derived from another unrelated plant, Pfaffia
paniculata Martius, family
Amaranthaceae (Brazilian ginseng) and Rumex hymenosepalus Torrey,
family Polygonaceae (Wild red desert ginseng or American wild red
ginseng). Ginseng
contains complex mixtures of saponins termed ginsenosides or panaxosides. At
least 13 saponins have been isolated from extracts of P. ginseng roots.
Names meaning in English:
Panax derived from the Greek word panacea meaning
“all-heal” or “all-cure”. Ginseng, Chinese (Wade-Giles
Romanization) Jen Sheng, or (Pinyin) Ren Sheng (root
of heaven). Ginseng is derived from the words Jen sheng,
which, in addition to 'man-like root'. Chines word xi yang shen
means American Ginseng , Japanese ginseng (chikusetsu
ninjin, ninjin means carrot).
Pharmacopoeias.
In Chin., Eur., and Jpn.
Also in US (as Asian Ginseng and American Ginseng). US includes
additionally powdered forms of these two varieties of ginseng. Jpn also
includes Red Ginseng, the dried root of P. ginseng which has
been steamed. Chin. and Jpn also include
Rhizoma Panacis Japonica from Panax japonicus. Eur. also
includes Notoginseng Root from P. notoginseng. Chin. also
includes Radix Notoginseng from P. notoginseng, and
Rhizoma Panacis Majoris from P. japonicus var. major and P.
japonicus var. bipinnatifidus.
Ph. Eur. 6.2 (Ginseng). The
whole or cut dried root of Panax ginseng. It contains not less than
0.4% of combined ginsenosides, Rg1 (C42H72O14,2H2O
= 837.0) and Rb1(C54H92O23,3H2O =
1163.3), calculated with reference to the dried drug. Protect from light.
USP 31 (Asian Ginseng). The dried roots of Panax ginseng (Araliaceae).
It contains not less than 0.2% of ginsenoside Rg1 and not less than 0.1% of
ginsenoside Rb1, both calculated on the
dried basis. Store in a dry place at a temperature of 8° to
15°C.
USP 31 (American Ginseng). The dried roots of Panax quinquefolius (Araliaceae).
It contains not less than 4.0% of total ginsenosides, calculated on
the dried basis. Store in airtight containers. Protect from light
and heat.
Ginseng Cultivation:
Most of the drug is collected from plants which
are cultivated in various parts of the United States
and Canada (American ginseng) and in China, Korea and Japan (Chinese
ginseng).The ginseng plant
demands a relatively rough climate, though the air temperature throughout the
year must remain between 0-25°C. Also, a special type of soil is necessary. The
ground temperature must be constant as possible, an artificial fertilizer is
never employed but only a fertilizer
made of ginseng leaves gathered. The plants do not withstand direct sunlight
and must be protected by specially constructed sheds.The plants are
propagated from seeds which should be sown in light loam rich in
humus and in shade of woodland or
orchard, well drained land and some cultivation are necessary for a good
crops.
Ginseng Collection:
The roots are dug from 3 to 6 years old plants in late
summer or autumn, washed and carefully dried. Fresh root dug out of the soil is covered with
pathogenic germs which remain on it after careful washing. A sterilization
process is thus necessary to ensure stability of the roots and to avoid any
chance of infection irrespective of whether the root is eaten as such in small
slices, as many Asian do, or whether a preparation made from the root is taken.
Ginseng
Preparation:
In China, ginseng roots are especially treated by an unknown
process which renders them somewhat translucent and horny. Similar
results can be obtained by treating the fresh, cleaned roots with recently
slaked lime.
White ginseng can also be obtained commercially with
the surface “skin” removed by careful peeling. Dried white ginseng, if stored
carefully, can retain saleable quality for about 12–15 months. Compared with
intact ginseng roots, peeling of ginseng roots resulted in a substantial
decrease (approximately 20-30%) in total ginsenoside contents.
Red ginseng (Korean ginseng) indicates an alternative method of
preservation of ginseng. The cleaned roots are sterilised by steam treatment at
a temperature of 120° to 130° C for 2 to 4 hours. Sugars present in the roots
partially caramelise causing the characteristic red-brown colouration, hence
the name “Red Ginseng”. The saponin content of red ginseng is increased during
processing. Further observed that in terms of total saponin content the best 6-
year old red ginseng came from Korean sources followed by Japanese and Chinese
products. The heat treatment increases the hardness of red ginseng roots and
also produces chemical artefacts. Carefully stored red ginseng will retain its
quality for 2–3 years.
The drug is extensively used in China and it has
been estimated that about 300,000 pounds of ginseng are exported annually from
the United States. The supplies are not only obtained from wild plants, but
also from cultivated plants in various localities in United States and in Asia.
What
is G 115 :
G115 being the abbreviation for standardized ginseng extract. It,
is a natural product from genuine Panax ginseng. G115 is standardized
i.e each dosage unit of G115 contains an accurately determined and
equal quantity ofginsenosides.
Morphological Description:
The plant is shrub reaching a height of 60 to 70 cm. The stem carries
whirl-fixed, palmate leaves. The fruits are light-red berries about 1 cm.
in diameter, containing 1 to 2 flat, white disc-shaped seeds.
Ginseng root is subcylindrical, somewhat spindle-shaped fleshy when
dry it is brittle, up to 25 cm long, 0.7 to 2.5 cm in diameter, with 2 to 5
large branches less frequently branched. The body of the root is thickened,
almost cylindrical with distinct annulations at top.
The outer surface of root is longitudinally, less frequently
spirally wrinkled and exhibiting root scars. On maceration, which goes on
slowly, the wrinkles disappear and the surface becomes smooth. In the upper
part of the root there is a constricted, transversely wrinkled
rhizome, the neck, short with several stem scars, One or
several adventitious roots may emanate from the neck. Rhizomes bear leaf scars the number of
which gives an indication of the age of the plant. The external color varying
from yellowish white (American and Chinese) to yellowish-brown (Korean);
fracture is short and mealy. Ginseng
root has a slightly aromatic odor and specific taste which is sweetish, pungent mucilaginous and slightly bitter.
Internally pale yellow to yellowish-brown and exhibiting a broad soft,
whitish bark, a dark brown cambium line and a distinctly radiate, hard wood.
Scattered through the bark and wood are numerous oil and resin canals which in
older roots have a brownish- red resinous content.
Microscopic differentiation between Panax species
|
|||
species
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Powder
|
Starch
|
Calcium oxalate
|
Panax ginseng (unprocessed ), Panax quinquefolius
|
Color is beige to white; soft texture
|
Present
|
Present
|
Panax ginseng (processed )
|
Color is pale to dark reddish brown or pale yellow-brown;
hard, more crystallized texture to touch
|
Absent; transformed into gelatinous mass due to steaming
|
Present
|
Panax psudoginseng
|
Color is beige to yellow
|
Present and larger than in other Panax species
|
Infrequent or absent
|
Constituents:
1- Saponins termed Ginsenosides by
Japanese workers and Panaxosides by Russian workers.
However, the two series of compounds do not appear to be absolutely identical
with respect of the sugar moieties. Some 13 ginsenosides (e.g. ginsenosides Ro,
Ra, Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2,
Rg3, Rh1 and Rh2.) have been described
and designated according to their Rf values in a particular solvent system. They noted
that the protopanaxadiol-derived Rb group (Rb1 and Rb2) and the
protopanaxatriolderived Rg group saponins were quantitatively the
main glycosides present. The Panaxosides are termed panaxoside A,
B, C, etc. The studies of the American chemist E. J. Staba and
his colleagues on the indigenous P. quinquefolium revealed
that the saponins identified asPanaquilins by earlier
workers were also identical with the ginsenosides.
The overall yield of glycosides in Panax ginseng roots varies between 0.5 and 4.0 per cent and is age-dependent.
Mild acid hydrolysis of the mixed ginsenosides revealed three principal
structural types based on:-
a) the tetracyclic, dammarene, triterpenoid sapogenin (20-S)-protopanaxadiol,
b) the tetracyclic, dammarene, triterpenoid sapogenin (20-S)-protopanaxatriol,
c) the pentacyclic, triterpene oleanolic acid.
On hydrolysis the panaxosides afford principally oleanolic acid,
panaxadiol and panaxatriol. The two latter appear to be artefacts arising
during hydrolysis. Ginseng root, therefore, contains a mixture of both
Tetracyclic and Pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins.
Some of the ginsenosides (Panaquilins)
of P. quinquefolium are the same as those
of the Chinese and Korean drug; others appear to differ.
Correlation of the nomenclature of ginsenosides, panaxosides and
panaquilins
Ginsenoside
|
Panaxoside
|
Panaquilin
|
Ro
|
-
|
-
|
Ra
|
F
|
-
|
Rb
|
E
|
B
|
Rc
|
D
|
C
|
-
|
-
|
E1
|
Rd
|
C
|
E2
|
Re
|
B
|
E3
|
Rf
|
-
|
-
|
Rg1
|
A
|
G1
|
Rg2
|
-
|
G2
|
2- High molecular weight polysaccharides
(glycans), for P. ginseng these are known as panaxans and
they have been shown to have hypoglycaemic activity.
3- Straight-chain acetylenic compounds, Essential
oil, a camphor-like
substance named panacene which he had isolated from an extract
of the root of the American ginseng P. quinquefolium L. and Vitamins.
4- Among
the nonsaponin constituents of red ginseng was the food flavouring
agent 3-hydroxy-2-methyl-pyran-4-one and its glucoside. Such compounds
may be artifacts generated during preparation of the red ginseng.
Actions and Uses:
1- As a general tonic and stimulant:
ginseng can strengthen the debilitated body, for asthenia, stimulating recuperation,
improving the quality of life and for sexual
impotence.
2- An
adaptogen defined in many ways: for different types of stress
A- the ability of
ginseng (Panax ginseng), Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus spp)
and related Araliaceous drugs to increase the nonspecific resistance of the
host to several types of stresses.
B- This normalising
phenomenon presented by ginseng was referred to as “adaptogenic activity”, a
controversial concept. In effect there was a higher state of defence
preparation and the adaptogen, which was also known as a non-specific
immunomodulator or neuroimmunological regulator.
C- It is also certain that ginseng is of value
in the countering of stresses due to temperature variation, physical strain,
disease states and toxic substances.
D- It is a
substance that is able to improve the ability of an organism to adapt to
differing external or internal disturbances.
E- The enhancement
of the body’s non-specific resistance to external stresses or noxious effects
of physical, chemical or biological nature.
3- Nervous system:
A- For all ages as an agent capable of improving memory and intellectual
skills.
B- For old age:
I-Protection from neural degeneration, preservation of antioxidant
levels and inhibition of malondialdehyde formation collectively retard the
inexorable advance of age related deterioration.
II-for the treatment of conditions such as normal ageing, cerebral
vascular disease in the aged, senile dementia,Mental function impairment and Alzheimer’s disease.
4- As liver
protective agents, in alcohol intoxication therapy.
5- For morphine,
cocaine and amphetamine withdrawal problems.
6- Other potential
applications of ginseng in anticancer treatment.
7- In preparation for Skin, nail disorders and Hair loss also as Aid to smoking withdrawal.
8- In topical
preparations for skin affections such as acne and eczema and in cosmetics still
require careful clinical trials to demonstrate indisputably that standardised
ginseng phytochemicals or formulations are really effective in human subjects.
Recommended dose
At the practical level, it has been suggested
that young and healthy persons should take ginseng in short
courses of 2–3 weeks with a two week interval between consecutive courses. The
recommended daily dose is 0.5–1.0 g of powdered root or 200 mg of ginseng
extract daily divided into two doses, one in the morning two hours before food
and one in the evening at least two hours after food.
It has also been recommended that ginseng
should not be taken continuously for periods exceeding three
months and others suggest occasional use in treatments comprising a one month
course followed by a two months interval before further treatment. Ginseng
treatment can be continuous in the aged and the chronically sick.
Precautions
1- Concurrent use of
stimulants such as coffee (caffeine) is
not encouraged. In the absence of
other aetiological factors, it was proposed that prolonged daily use of
Siberian ginseng in combination with caffeine and vigorous exercise was
responsible for the stroke.
2- Ginseng is not
suggested for people with hypoglycemia, high blood pressure, or heart
disorders. The ‘ginseng abuse syndrome’ defined
as hypertension together with nervousness, sleeplessness, skin eruptions, and
morning diarrhoea was experienced by 14 subjects who took ginseng orally in an
average daily dose of 3 g for very long period. Abrupt withdrawal precipitated
hypotension, weakness, and tremor in 1 user. About 50% of the subjects had
stopped the use of ginseng within the 2 years.
Drug interactions
1- Ginseng with phenelzine (MAOI)
There have
been reports of adverse effects, including headaches, insomnia,
tremulousness, and irritability when ginseng was taken with phenelzine.
2- Ginseng with warfarin
A reduction in the
response to warfarin was reported in a patient after taking a ginseng
preparation. A study in healthy subjects also found a small reduction in
response.
3- Ginseng with digoxin assays
Varieties of ginseng may interfere with plasma-digoxin assays.
Allied species:
1) Eleutherococcus senticosus
(Acanthopanax senticosus)
Siberian ginseng, has been
employed in the USSR as an abundant and inexpensive substitute for ginseng. It
is alsocultivated in China for
the roots which are used as a tonic and sedative. ‘' The roots contain active
saponiss (eleutherosides), different to those of Panax ginseng, and a series
of glucans (eleutherans A-G) and a heteroxylan with adaptogenic properties. In
test models the eleutherans have been shown to have hypoglycaemic activity
2) Panax pseudogineseng (Himalayan ginseng).
The roots contain active saponins, Shukla and
Thakur have recorded ginsenosides Ro and Rbi, chikusetsusaponin-I Va and other
compounds in the Indian root subsp. himalaicus var angustifolius.
3) Japanese ginseng (Panax Japonicum).
It represents the dried rhizomes of Panax repens, a
plant growing in Japan and is considered to have properties similar to
those of ginseng. The rhizomes is horizontal and
cylindrical, more or less curved, from 5 to 10 cm, in length and 3 to 6 mm. in
thickness. Externally its is yellow-white, nodes considerably thickened and,
marked on the upper surface by circular stem-scars The fracture is horny,
internally it is whitish marked with small yellowish oil-secretion canals in
the cortex, narrow wedges of collateral vascular bundles separated
by broad medullary rays and a large pith. Panax repens contains
20% of saponins, volatile oil and resins. Panax Japonicum and P.
japonicumvar. major chikusetsusaponins, ginsenosides and glycans.
4- Indian
ginseng (Withania somniferum).
Withania somniferum Dunal is a Solanaceous plant found in southern
Europe, India and Africa. It has a reputation in Indian indigenous medicine as
a sedative, hypnotic and antiseptic agent. Extracts of the plant demonstrate
antimitotic activity. Typically the plant yields tropane alkaloids and steroidal
lactones named withanolides but no ginsenosides.
3) Dioscorea
Synonyms:
Yam
Biological source:
Dioscorea
consists of the dried tubers of a number of wild and cultivated Dioscorea
species like D. deltoidea Wall, D. prazeri Prain, D. floribunda Mart and D.
composite.
Family:
Dioscoreaceae
Geographical source:
Dioscorea
is found in North America, Japan, China, Mexico, India and Nepal. In India, the
plant grows wildly in Western Himalayas, Karnataka, Kashmir, West Bengal, etc.
Macroscopical Characters
1. Rhizomes of D. deltoidea: Horizontal tubers, digitate,
chestnut brown with recoiling roots.
2. D. prazeri: Stout horizontal creeping, freely branched,
branched about 10 cm long; 1.5 to 2 cm wide, grey brown-blackish, fresh white
or creamy.
(i) Odour: Odourless.
(ii) Taste: bitter.
Chemical constituents:
1. Steroidal saponin glycosides: Dioscin and its aglycone is
diosgenin. Small quantity of Hecogenin.
2. Resin-Botagenin.
3. Alkaloids: dioscorine.
4. Sterol: Cholesterol, stigmasterol, P-sitosterol.
5. Enzyme: sapogenase.
Uses:
1.
Diosgenin is used as a precursor for the synthesis of many steroidal drugs like
corticosteroids, sex hormones and oral contraceptives.
2. It is
also used in rheumatism.
Allied species:
1. Dioscorea esculenta:
It is a
prickly climber; tuber 4 too many stalked, produced in branches close to the
surface of the ground. The tubers are starchy and free from dioscorine. They
have a sweetish taste; in flavour and mealiness, closely resemble potatoes. The
tubers are applied for swelling.
2. Dioscorea. deltoidea:
It is an
extensive climber with unarmed stem twining to the left. The tubers are rich in
saponin and are used for washing silk, wood and hair, and in dyeing. They kill
lice.
3. Dioscorea globra:
It is a
climber with stems twining to the right. This species occurs in Assam, Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa, and Andaman. The tubers are used as food edible.
4. Dioscorea oppositifolia:
It is a
climber with glabrous or finely pubescent stem. The tuber is usually single
with few rootlets; skin reddish; flesh white, soft and edible. The tubers are
used externally to reduce swellings.
Isolation of diosgenin:
The tubers
are washed, dried, sliced and extracted with hot water or 95% ethyl alcohol for
several hrs. The alcoholic extract is concentrated under vacuum and the
glycosides is precipitated with solvent ether or by lead acetate (in the case
of acid saponin) followed by hydrolysis and extracted with petroleum ether,
40-60°C will isolate the diosgenin.
CARDIO-ACTIVITY STEROLS
Digitalis:
Biological source:
Digitalis
consists of dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea Linn. After collection leaves
are dried immediately at temperature below 60 C and they contain no more than
5% moisture. After drying leaves are stored in moisture proof container.
Family:
Scrophulariaceae
Geographical source:
It is
found in European countries, England, France, Germany, North America and India.
In India, it is cultivated in Kashmir and Nilgiri Hill.
Cultivation and collection:
It is a
biennial or perennial herb. It is about 1 to 2 metres in height. The seed of
digitalis are small in size, so they are mixed with sand for sowing. Leaves are
collected in both the years but leaves collected when 2/3 of flowers are fully
developed. The seedling is than transplanted into the field. Generally the
leaves are collected in the early afternoon, with a belief that maximum
cardio-active glycosides are present at that time.
The leaves
are immediately dried after collection below 60 C and dried leaves are stored
in airtight containers. The dried leaves should not contain more than 5%
moisture, since it promotes hydrolysis of cardiac glycosides resulting in loss
of cardiac activity.
Macroscopical characters:
(i)
General appearance: Usually broken and criped.
(ii)
Shape: Ovate-lanceolate.
(iii)
Size: 10 to 40-cm. Long and 4 to 10 cm.
(iv) Wide
Margin: Crenate or dentate
(v) Apex:
obtuse or rounded
(vi) Base:
Tapering, decurrent
(vii)
Upper Surface: Slight pubescent, dark green, little wrinkled, one water pore
present near each tooth
(viii)
Lower surface: Grayish-green, very pubescent
(ix)
Venation: Pinnate, mid-rib, lateral vein, veinlet and still smaller vein lets
prominent on the under- surface; lateral vein leaves the mid- rib, at an acute
angle and anatomies on the margin.
(x)
Petiole: Winged, 2.5 to 10 cm. long
(xi)
Odour: Characteristic.
(xii)
Taste: Bitter
Digitalis
is dorsiventral and can be easily identified due to the presence of
characteristic simple covering and glandular trichomes. The covering trichomes
are uniseriate; usually three to four cells long, having collapsed cells, acute
apex and finely warty cuticle. The glandular trichomes have a short unicellular
stalk and bi-cellular or rarely unicellular head. These glandular trichomes are
usually located over the veins. Further anomocytic (Ranunculaceous) type of
stomata is also present mainly on the lower surface.
Microscopical characters:
1. Lamina:
a. Upper epidermis:
Single
layered with more or less rectangular cells having a distinct cuticle. Abundant
covering and glandular trichomes emerge from the upper epidermal layer.
Covering trichomes are uniseriate, multicellular (3-6 Celled), mostly straight,
warty and with blunt tips. Certain cells of the covering trichomes are
collapsed, thus forming a diagnostic feature for the identification. Glandular
trichomes are with either unicellular or bi-cellular terminal (through rare)
stalk having unicellular or bi-cellular terminal gland few stomata are also
seen on the upper epidermis.
b. Mesophyll:
It is
differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma. Calcium oxalate crystals of
any type are absent.
c. Palisade:
One
layered, compact with radially elongated cells
d. Spongy parenchyma:
4-6
layered and many distinct obliquely cut out veinlet are seen.
e. Lower epidermis:
Similar to
upper epidermis and has many stomata and more trichomes compared to those of
upper epidermis.
2. Midrib:
The dorsal
surface of the midrib is strongly convex and as usual the epidermal layers of
lamina continue over the midrib. Below the upper epidermis and above the lower
epidermis are seen thin strips of collenchymas. The vascular bundles are
surrounded by a distinct endodermal layer, the cells of which contain abundant
starch. Within the endodermis, appears a band of the collenchymatous pericycle.
Distinct phloem tissue can be seen on the dorsal surface and well developed
xylem tissue towards the ventral surface of the midrib.
Chemical constituents:
Digitalis purpurea contains 35 glycosides:
1. The
primary glycosides are purpurea glycosides A and B.
2. It also
contains Odoroside H, glucogitaloxin.
3.
Verodoxin and glucoverodoxin.
4. The
digitoxigenin, Digitoxin, Gitoxigenin, gitaloxin are also important medicinal
compounds. They are also called secondary glycosides.
5. They
contain anthraquinones derivatives like digitolutin, methoxy-2 methyl
anthraquinones, etc
6.
Contains saponin, flavonoids.
7. Tannins
and pectin.
Chemical tests:
1. Raymond’s test:
To the
drug, add a few ml of 50% ethanol and 0.1 ml of 1 % solution of m-
dinitrobenzene in ethanol. To this solution, add 2-3 drops of 20% sodium
hydroxide solution. Violet colours appears, this is due to presence of active
methylene group.
2. Legal test:
To the
drug, add few ml of pyridine and 2drops of nitroprusside and a drop of 20%
sodium hydroxide solution. A deep red colour is produced.
3. Killer killiani test:
Glycoside
is dissolved in a mixture of 1 % ferric sulphate solution in (5%) glacial
acetic acid. Add one or two drop of concentrated sulphuric acid. A blue colour
develops due to the presence of deoxy sugar.
Xanthydrol test:
The crude
is heated with 0.1 to 5% solution of Xanthydrol in glacial acetic acid
containing 1% hydrochloric acid. A red colour is produced due to the presence
of 2-deoxysugar.
4. Baljet test:
Take a piece of lamina or thick section of the leaf and add sodium
picrate reagent. If glycoside is present yellow to orange colour will be seen.
Uses:
1.
Cardiotonic.
2. Used in
various forms like tablets or capsules in the treatment of congestive cardiac
failure, atrial flutter, trial fibrillation and peroxymal atrial tachycardia.
3.
Diuretic in cardiac edema.
Adulterants:
1. Primrose leaves:
Leaves of
Primula vulgaris Huds (Fam: Pimulaceae).
2. Comfrey leaves:
Leaves of
Symphytum officinale Linn. (Fam: Boraginaceae).
3. Mullein leaves:
Leaves of
Verbascum thapsus Linn. (Fam: Scrophulariaceae).
Powder analysis of Digitalis purpurea:
1. Trichomes:
Both
covering and glandular, sometimes in fragments.
2. Covering trichomes:
Multicellular
(3-6 celled) with blunt tips and finely warty. Certain cells of the trichomes
are often collapsed leaving behind only the cell walls.
3. Glandular trichomes:
They less
numerous, with both unicellular and multicellular stalk and a bicellular or
multicellular terminal gland.
4. Stomata:
They are
anomocytic or Ranunculaceous type.
5. Negative characters:
Absence of
calcium oxalate crystal.
6. Organoleptic characters:
Colour:
(i) Pale
green powder
(ii)
Odour: Slight.
(iii)
Taste: Bitter.
2)
SQUILL
Synonyms:
Urginea,
Jangali pyaj
Biological source:
Indian
squill consists of dried slices of bulb Urginea indica Kunth.
Family:
Liliaceae.
Geographical source:
It is
found in throughout India including Konkan and Saurastra.
Collection:
The bulb
is smaller and is collected after flowering. Dry outer membranous scales are
removed and cut into slices and dried.
Macroscopical characters:
i. Size:
1-2 cm length and 5-10 mm breadth.
ii. Shape:
Curved, slices separate or 4-8 slices joined to the axis.
iii.
Surface: Brittle in dry drug but tough in moist drug.
iv.
Colour: Yellow- white.
v. Odour:
Slight
vi. Taste:
Bitter and acrid.
Microscopical characters:
T.S.
section of Squill is shows following tissues:
1. Upper epidermis:
Single
layered with a moderately thick cuticle, epidermal cells with thin walls,
rounded to polygonal at times axially elongated; no trichomes of any kind.
2. Mesophyll:
They form
the bulk and is not differentiated and consists only of thin walled, large,
polyhedral, colourless parenchyma with intercellular spaces. Numerous bundled
of acicular raphides are seen in the parenchymatous cells of mesophyll, at
times still embedded in the mucilaginous sheath. Collateral bundles are seen at
regular intervals and have phloem towards upper epidermis and a relatively well
developed xylem towards the lower epidermis.
3. Lower epidermis:
Similar to
upper epidermis but in addition a few stomata are seen.
Chemical Constituents:
1. Cardiac
glycosides: Scillaren A and B
2.
Enzymes: Scillarenase
3.
Scillaren A is crystalline and responsible for the activity of the drug.
Uses:
It is used
as Cardiotonic similar to European scilla. Indian Scilla reportedly contains
more Proscillaridin A and exported to Germany.
Powder analysis of Urginea indica (Squill):
1. Acicular raphides:
They are
large number of acicular raphides mostly in bundles measuring around 1000
micron in length and around 20 micron in width, scattered all over in
parenchyma.
2. Parenchyma:
They are
colourless and large parenchymatous tissue containing vascular bundles.
3. Negative characters:
Absence of
trichomes abundant starch grains, cluster crystals and prism
4. Organoleptic characters:
(i)
Colour: Brownish.
(ii)
Odour: Slight.
(iii)
Taste: Mucilaginous, bitter and acrid.
5. Chemical test:
(a) Mucilage
does not turn pink with Ruthenium red but stains with corallin soda solution.
(b) With
Iodine water, mucilage turns reddish purple.
3. Negative characters:
Absence of
trichomos, abundant starch grains, cluster crystals and prism.
4. Organoleptic characters:
i. Colour:
Brownish.
ii. Odour:
Slight.
iii.
Taste: Mucilaginous, bitter and acrid.
5. Chemical test:
a.
Mucilage does not turn pink with Ruthenium red but stains with corallin soda
solution.
b. With
Iodine water, mucilage turns reddish purple.
Strophanthus
Synonyms:
Semen
strophanthi, Strophanthus Seeds
Botanical Source:
Strophanthus
consists of dried ripe seeds of the Strophanthus kombe.
Family:
Apocynaceae
Geographical source:
Wild in
the forest of East Africa near lakes of Nyasaland and Tanganyika. Portuguese
East Africa at present cultivated in Cameroon.
Collection:
Drug is
collected mostly from wild plants and to a small extent from cultivated plants.
There are about 32 species of Strophanthus. The plants are large, woody
climbers, climbing on the large trees in the forests of Africa. Fruit consists
of two divergent follicles, which are dehiscent, and many seeded.
Each
follicle is 30 cm. Long, 2.5 cm. Broad, tapering both at the apex and base.
Mature and ripe fruits are collected in June- July. After collection Epicarp
and flashy mesocarp are removed and seeds separated from yellow-brown leathery
endocarp and awns usually separated from. Seeds are washed and washed and
dried. The seeds are derived from anatropous ovules.
Macroscopical characters:
(i) Shape:
Lanceolate and acuminate.
(ii) Size:
1.3-1.8 cm length and 3-5 cm broad.
(iii)
Colour: Silvery grey to yellowish green and pale brown.
(iv)
Endosperm: Narrow, oily, white below the seed coat.
(v)
Fracture: Short.
(vi)
Taste: very bitter.
(vii)
Odour: slight, Characteristic.
Uses:
1. In
Acute cardiac failure.
2.
Hypertensive.
3.
Diuretic in cardiac edema.
Chemical Tests:
1. Baljet
test, legal test and killer killiani test are giving positive tests similar to
digitalis.
2. With
80% H2S04, Strophanthus seeds show green colour.
Allied Drugs:
From the
large number of Strophanthus species Strophanthus gratus and Strophanthus
sarmentosus are important.
1.
Strophanthus gratus seed contain only one crystalline glycoside characterized
by define m. p., g-strophanthin or ouabairr. Quabain was first isolated from
the wood of an Africa tree Acokanthera quabain (Apocynaceae). As G-
strophanthidin is a pure crystalline substance it is used as a standard for
biological assay of other cardiac glycosides. Activity of g- strophanthidin is
nearly double than kstrophanthidin.
2.
Strophcrnthus sarmentosus contains glycoside whose aglycone is sarmentogenin.
Sarmentogenin contains an additional OH group at 11 positions. Substances with
this chemical structure are suitable for synthesis of cortisone and other
steroidal hormones by oxidation.
Substances
with this chemical structure are suitable for synthesis of cortisone and other
steroidal hormones by oxidation.
ANTHRAQUIIONES
Synonyms:
Aloe,
Ghritkumari, Aliyo (Guj.)
Botanical source:
Aloe is
the dried juice collected by incision from the bases of the leaves of various
species of aloe.
Family:
Liliaceae
Geographical source:
There are
about 160 species of aloe from which the following species are important and
utilized for the preparation of aloe.
They are found in the countries mentioned as under:
(1) Aloe perryi: Baker:
This is
found in Socotra and Zanzibar Islands and in their neighbouring areas. The aloe
obtained from this species is known as Socotrines or Zanzibar aloe.
(2) Aloe vera Linn:
This
species is also known as Aloe vulgaris Lamarek, Aloe barbadensis Mil or Aloe
officinalis Forskal. This species is a native of North Africa but now
cultivated in Aruba Bonaire and to a lesser extent in Curacao in West Indies.
The aloe obtained from this species is known as Curacao or Barbados aloe.
(3) Aloe ferox Miller and hybrids of this species with aloe
Africana and Aloe spicata:
Cultivation and Collection:
The plant
is xerophytes and may be herb, shrub or tree and bears a rosette of leaves,
which are thick, fleshy, sessile and spiny. Flowers are red or yellow. For
cultivation in West Indies young offsets are planted in the soil after the
rainy season in rows situated at a distance of 60cm in the natives collect the
second year leaves. Because of the spiny nature of leaves the natives protect
their hands and feet, cut the leaves near the base.
Put them
into kerosene ting and take them to a central place for the preparation of
aloe. Juice of aloe is present in parenchymatous cells of paricycle surrounding
which are mucilage cells. On incision of leaves juice exudes from pericyclic
cells and mucilage cells exert pressure on pericyclic cells and by single
incision juice of the entire leaf in drained out.
Preparation of Aloes:
The method
of preparation of aloe is different in West Indies and in South Africa.
(1) Curacao of Barbados Aloe:
In West Indies
the cut the leaves are arranged with their cut surface on the inner side, on
the slides of V-shaped vessel of about 1 to 1.5 meter long and the flowing
juice collected in a tin vessel placed below the V-shape vessel. The juice is
transferred to copper evaporating pan and heated carefully till the whole mass
acquires semi-solid consistency. It is then cooled slowly and stirred during
cooling.
These
conditions are favourable for the crystallization or barbaloin and this aloe
contained crystal of barbaloin because of the presence of which it becomes
opaque and is also known as hepatic or livery aloe. It is packed in gourds and
allowed to become more solidified. This aloe is known in commerce as Curacao or
Barbados aloe.
(2) Cape Aloe:
In South
Africa a shallow circular pit is dug and covered with goat skin or canvas and
cut leaves are arranged radially. The juice is collected in canvas or goatskin
and transferred to a copper-evaporating pan and heated. It is heated till the
juice acquires maximum possible solid consistency. It is then cooled quickly
without stirring. These conditions are not favourable for the crystallization
of barbaloin and as a result this aloe is transparent, and is known as vitreous
or glassy aloe, Cape aloe is prepared in this way.
(3) Socotrine Aloe:
Aloe juice
is collected in goat or sheep skin and spontaneous evaporation is allowed for
about a month when it becomes viscous pasty mass. Arab traders send this pasty
mass to Zanzibar or Bombay from where it is exported to Europe in barrels, tins
or leather packing. In European countries it is dried in wooden pans with hot
air till moisture is about 10%.
(4) Zanzibar Aloe:
This aloe
is considered a type of Socotrines aloe but botanical source is not definite
and is prepared similar to Socotrine aloe. It is packed in skins of carnivorous
animals. This aloe is also known as monkey skin aloe. Socotrine and Zanzibar
aloe are opaque.
Characters
Curacao aloe:
(i) Shape:
Opaque
(ii)
Colour: yellow-brown to chocolate-brown. Inferior over-heated drug is nearly
black.
(iii)
Odour: strong odour resembles with Iodoform.
(iv)
Taste: Bitter
(v)
Fracture: waxy.
Cape aloe:
(i) Glassy
(ii)
Colour: Dark chocolate or green-chocolate. Small pieces are reddish- brown or
yellow coloured or amber.
(iii)
Odour: Characteristic, sour
(iv)
Taste: unpleasant and bitter.
(v)
Texture: Breaks with a glassy fraction
Socotrine aloe:
(i) Masses
of different shapes and sizes.
(ii)
Colour: yellow -brown to dark brown and opaque.
(iii)
Fracture: Irregular and porous.
(iv)
Taste: bitter.
(v) Odour:
Unpleasant
Zanzibar aloe:
(i)
Opaque, more firm than Socotrine
(ii)
Colour: brown.
(iii)
Fracture: smooth as wax.
(iv)
Odour: considered pleasant
(v) Taste:
bitter.
Chemical Constituents:
Aloe may
contain upto 30% aloin which is a mixture of three isomers: barbaloin,
β-barbaioin and isobarbaloin. Barbaloin present in all the four varieties is
slightly yellow-coloured, bitter, water-soluble, crystalline glycoside.
β-barbaloin
is amorphous and present in Cape aloe and can be produced from barbaloin on
heating. Isobarbaloin is crystalline, present in Curacao aloe and in traces in
Cape aloe and absent in Socotrine and Zanzibar aloe and is probably a mixture
of barbaloin and polyphenols responsible for its colour tests. Barbaloin is a
C-glycoside compared to common O-glycosides.
Aloe also
contains aloinsides A and B, O-glycosides of aloin in which L-rhamnose is
combined with OH of hydroxymethyl group at 11-.C. atom. Barbaloin on hydrolysis
yields aloe emodin anthrone and glucose. Besides aloe-emodin anthrone,
aloe-emodin anthranol and aloe-emodin are also present. Aloe contains a resin,
which is ester of P.coumaric acid or P. hydroxy cimammic acid esterified with
aloeresinotannol.
Chemical Tests:
For
carrying out the tests a clear solution of aloe is prepared as follows: Boil 1
gm with 100m] of water, allow it to cool; add 1 gm kieseliguhr, stir, it well
and filter through filter paper.
1. Borax test:
Take 10 ml
of solution and add 5 gm of borax and heat. Green colour fluorescence is seen
which is due to aloe-emodin anthranol. This test becomes more sensitive, if 5
to 10 drops of this reaction mixture are taken a test tube and tilled with
water.
2. Bromine Test:
Add equal
volume of bromine solution to solution of aloe. Bulky yellow precipitate of
tetrabromaloin is formed.
3. Modified Anthraquinones Test:
Take 0.1
gm of drug and add 5ml of 5% solution of ferric chloride and 5ml dilute
hydrochloric acid and heat on boiling water-bath for 5 minutes, cool the
solution and shake gently with a organic solvent like benzene. Separate the
organic solvent layer and add an equal volume of dilute ammonia. A pinkish red
colour is formed in ammonical layer. This test is of C. glycoside.
4. Cupraloin Test:
Dilute 10
ml of the solution of aloe to 10 ml with water and add to it 1 drop of copper
sulphate solution. Bright yellow colour is produced. Add 10 drops of saturated
solution of sodium chloride. Colour change to purplish. Add 20 drops of 90%
alcohol, the purplish colour persist.
5. Nitrous acid test:
Add few
small crystals of sodium nitrite and few drop of dilute acetic acid to 5 ml of
solution of aloe. Pink of purplish colour is produced.
6. Nitric acid Test:
Different aloe show different colours with nitric acid:
(a)
Curacao aloe deep reddish -brown
(b)
Socotrine aloe – Pale yellow brown
(c)
Zanzibar aloe- Yellow -brown
(d) Cape
aloe- First brown, changing to green later
Nitric
acid test can be performed by taking little Coarse drug on while porcelain tile
and adding nitric acid to it
Uses:
1. Aloe
and aloin are strong purgative and in higher doses may act as abortifacient.
2. It used
alone, aloe causes griping and is usually combined with carminatives or
antispasmodic like belladonna or hyocyamus.
3.
Ointment of aloe gel is used in sunburns, thermal burns, radiation burns, and
abrasion and skin irritation and prevents ulceration and malignancy.
Senna
Synonyms:
Indian
Senna
Biological source:
Tinneveley
Senna consists of the dried leaflets of Cassia angustifolia Vahl
Family:
Leguminaceae.
Geographical source:
Tinneveley
Senna grows in Tirunelveli district and also many parts of South India.
Collection:
Tinnavelley
Senna plant is similar to Alexandrian senna plant and is cultivated in South
India in areas adjoing Tinnavelley and exported from Tuticorin.
The plant
is very sensitive to temperature and if the temperature falls below + 10°C, the
plant dies. Because of cultivation, this plant has become very luxuriant. The
collection of leaves takes place before flowering season. For collection each
leaf is carefully picked from the plant by hand and afterwards they are dried
in shade with care. Because of drying in shade, their natural green colour is
maintained.
After
drying leaves are packed in bales with pressure applied in packing, transverse
and oblique impression are found on the leaves. They are less brittle and hence
are more or less entire leave. They are less brittle and hence are more or less
entire and in good condition.
They were
considered better and had good demand and fetched high price but now their
price in International market is decreasing because of less percentage of
sennosides. Drug collected from dry area is inferior. Every year in India from
5,000 to 7,000 tons of leaves and fruits are obtained by cultivation. Leaves
from 67% and fruits form 33% of the drug. However because of probably
improvement of quality, price of senna and quantity of export have increased
and in 1978- 79, 4782 tons of the drug worth Rs. 20 million were exported.
Microscopical characters:
Upper epidermis:
Single
layer with polygonal cells covered on the outer side by a thick warty cuticle.
Some epidermal cells contain mucilage. Only covering trichomes emerge from the
epidermis layer. Trichomes are non-glandular short, thick, unicellular,
non-lignified, warty and curved at the bulbous base. Stomata are seen at regular
intervals.
Mesophyll:
It is
differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma. Being a unifacial or
isobilateral leaf; palisade is further differentiated into upper and lower
palisade.
Upper palisade:
Single
layered, compact with elongated, narrow, columnar cells and this continues also
over the midrib region.
Spongy parenchyma:
Thin,
narrow, loosely arrange between the upper and lower palisade. Vascular strands
are seen very frequently. Few sphaeraphides are also seen in the parenchyma
Lower palisade:
It is
restricted, unlike upper palisade, to lamina region only. Cells are smaller
than those of upper palisade, loosely arranged and their wall are wavy. Lower
epidermis: it is very similar to upper epidermis
Midrib:
It
presents a flat ventral surface and convex dorsal surface. The epidermal layers
are continuous over the midrib. The cells of the lower epidermis however are
small with thick cuticle. The cells of the upper palisade, a tissue that
appears below the upper epidermis in the midrib region, are relatively smaller
Collateral vascular bundle is prominent occupying the central portion of the
midrib. Xylem as usual is towards the ventral surface and phloem towards the
dorsal surface. The vascular bundle is covered on both the sides (dorsal and
ventral) by patches of sclerenchymatous fibrous.
Characteristics
of folia senna is that these fibres are unsheathed by a layer of parenchyma,
the individual cells of which contain calcium oxalate prisms. Such fibres with
crystal sheath can also be seen, if not frequently, in the lamina region.
Chemical constituents:
1. Senna
contains anthraquinones glycoside glycosides as sennosides A, sennosides B,
sennosides-C, sennosides D, emodin, chrysophenol, Aloe emodin, rhein.
2. Two
naphthalene glycoside, i.e. 6-hydroxy musizin glucoside and Tinnevellin
glycoside.
3. It also
contains yellow flavinol, colouring matter kaempferol and its glycosides
kaempfrin,
4. Sterol
and its glucoside.
5.
Mucilage, resin and calcium oxalate.
Chemical tests:
Borntranger’s Test:
Powdered
leaves of Senna are boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, Filtered and cooled. The
filtrate is extracted with chloroform or benzene and dilute ammonia is added to
it. The ammonical layer becomes pink to red due to the presence of
anthraquinones derivative.
Uses:
1. Used as
laxative and cathartic.
2. Senna
is mixed with carminative drugs due to its gripping action.
3. Powder
senna is mixed with vinegar and applied externally to cure skin diseases.
Powder analysis of Senna:
1. Trichomes:
They are
only covering type, short, thick, unicellular, warty and frequently cured near
the base.
2. Stomata:
Rubiaceous
or paracytic type meaning thereby the two subsidiary cells are parallel to the
stomal pore.
3. Calcium oxalate:
They are
occurring as cluster crystals in the cells of the mesophyll and as prism in a
sheath of the cell around the fibres and as well freely distributed in powder.
4. Epidermis:
With
polygonal epidermal cells in surface view
5. Mesophyll:
Fragments
of leaf showing isobilateral arrangement
6. Organoleptic characters:
(a)
Colour: Greyish- green or yellowish- green powder.
(b) Odour:
Faint, characteristic.
(c) Taste:
Mucilaginous, slightly bitter.
Allied drugs:
1. Arabian Senna:
This is
the wild plant of Cassia angustifolia available in Arabia and is used as
substitute.
2. Palthe Senna:
This is
the dried plant of Cassia auriculata leaves are used as substitute of senna.
3. Dog Senna:
It is
obtained from the leaves of Cassia obovata. The leaves are ovate in shape.
Isolation of sennosides:
Senna
leaves are powdered to 20-40 mesh and loaded into vertical/ continuous
extractors. Acetone at ambient temperature is circulated through the material
to remove adherent impurities of pesticides, and other acetone soluble unwanted
material of no therapeutic value.
It is then
made free of acetone and extracted with 70% V/V alcohol (ethyl or methyl)
preadjusted to pH 3.9 with citric acid at temperature 45-50°C. The extraction
is continued till washing show a positive test for anthraquinones glycosides
(colour reaction or TLC). After extraction, the marc is desolventised and
discarded.
The
extracted liquid is filtered and transferred to a tank fitted with stirrer. The
pH is adjusted to 6.0-6.2 with lime water. It is then concentrated to a paste
of 65-70% total solids in a multiple effect evaporator. The paste is dried in
rotary vacuum drier at temperature 50-55°C. The flakes obtained are pulverized
to a fine powder. It is then sifted to 80 meshes and packed preferably by vacuum
sealing.
Isolation of calcium sennosides:
The senna
leaves are powdered to 40 meshes in a pulverize and fine powder is removed by
sifting. It is then extracted in vertical extractors place in a row, using
80-90% V/V methanol and adjusted to pH 2.9 with any organic acid as extraction
medium.
The
solvent is circulated intermittently for 6-8 hrs at 40-45°C. The solvent is
then transferred to a storage tank. One more extraction is carried out as above
the solvent is collected in the same storage tank. It is then taken to a
reactor fitted with stirrer (20-30 rpm) through sparkler filter. The filtered
liquid is adjusted to pH 3.7- 3.9 with ammonia.
After
adjusted the pH, the liquid is stirred for 30-45 minutes and then allowed to
stand for one hour. The precipitate thus formed is removed by filtration and
clear liquid is transferred to a tank fitted with stirrer of 90 rpm.
It is made
up with methanol so that the final concentration of methanol is reached 80% V/V
in solution and filtered. 10% solution of stechiometric amount of calcium
chloride in methanol is then added. The content is stirred for 1 hr and then
liquor ammonia 30% is added with stirring to pH 6.5-6.8. The stirring is
continued until pH is stabilized. It is left for one hr. for complete precipitation
of sennosides as calcium salts.
The
precipitate is filtered in a drum/leaf filter and washed with chilled methanol
till pH of filtrate becomes almost neutral. Final washing with
methanol, adjusted at pH 6.5 with ascorbic acid, is given. The precipitate is
then quickly dried under vacuum at temperature not more than 50°C till
the moisture is reduced to less than 3% in
flakes. The flakes are pulverized to fine mesh and packed.
Rhubarb
Synonyms:
Rhizome
Rhei, Rhei Radix, Revandchini.
Biological source:
It
consists of the peeled dried rhizomes and roots of Rheum palmatum Linn. Rheum
officinale and other species of rhubarb, excepting Rheum rhaponticum
Family:
Polygonaceae.
Geographical source:
It is
found in China, Tibet, Germany and other Europine countries.
Collection:
The large
rhizomes are 6- 10 years old and they grow at an elevation of 3000 to 4000
metres. The rhizomes are dug out in September to October. Then the crown and
lateral roots are removed. The outer bark is separated by peeling. The rhizomes
are then cut into longitudinal slices and dried in shade.
Macroscopical characters:
(i)
General appearance: Rounds, flats or high-dried drug
(ii) Size:
Rounds, Flats, Length: 5-12 cm. Up to 15cm; thickness upto 5 cm.
(iii)
Diameter: 3 to 5 cm.
(iv) Shape:
Cylindrical, conical, Piano- convex Barrel shape
(v)
Surface: Smooth, pale brown to reddish and mottled due to reddish- brown
network of medullary rays in white parenchyma of phloem or xylem. Abnormal or
accessory vascular bundles known as star spots and drying holes are seen. Most
of the surface is covered with yellow powder.
(vi)
Odour: Characteristic, slightly aromatic.
(vii)
Taste: bitter, slight, astringent, gritty.
(viii)
Star spot: Within the cambium star spots
Chemical constituents:
1. The
anthraquinones are chrysophenol, aloe-emodin, emodin, physcion and rhein
anthrones or dianthrones are of chrysophenol, emodin. Aloe- emodin or physcion.
2.
Heterodianthrone contains two different molecules of anthrones they are from
above anthrone.
3. It also
contains astringent substances such as ghicogallin free gallic acid, catechins
and epicatechin gallate.
4. It also
contains starch and calcium oxalate.
Chemical Tests:
(i) Micro
sublimation.
(ii) With
ammonia gives pink colour.
(iii) With
5% potassium hydroxide give blood- red colour.
Uses:
(i)
Purgative (Large dose).
(ii)
Antidiarrhoeal in small dose
1. Calcium oxalate crystal:
They are
cluster crystals as big as 100 micron in diameter with well defined and pointed
corners many in number and scattered all over.
2. Starch granules:
They are
sphaeroidal or angular in shape. Both simple and compound (2-6) and show a
distinct central hilum.
3. Wood elements:
The
Vessels are very wide, reticulately thickened and do not show any lignin
reaction with the usual phloroglucinol + HCl.
4. Chemical test:
Powder on
treatment with caustic potash gives blood red colour.
5. Organoleptic characters:
(i)
Colour: Yellowish brown to reddish brown.
(ii)
Odour: Characteristic, empyreumatic odour.
(iii)
Taste: Bitter and astringent.
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